Bibliography

"Charles Darwin | Naturalist." Lucidcafé Interactive Café and Information Resource. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <http://www.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/library/96feb/darwin.html>.

 "Evolution." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution>.

Name, Common. "Taxonomy." Michigan State University. Est. 1855. East Lansing, Michigan USA. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <https://www.msu.edu/~nixonjos/armadillo/taxonomy.html>.

 "Linnaean Taxonomy." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy>.

"SparkNotes: Evolution and Lamarck: Lamarck: The Theory of Transformation." SparkNotes: Today's Most Popular Study Guides. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/evolution/lamarck/section2.rhtml>.

"Charles Darwin." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 27 Apr. 2011. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin>.

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.carolguze.com/images/evolution/5_kingdoms.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.carolguze.com/images/evolution/&usg=___DC6p_qk-GBntIbs5OiwRZgzOJw=&h=432&w=359&sz=40&hl=en&start=0&sig2=czLcaYIodORQL69kwv5uHA&zoom=1&tbnid=msVmDJypN5NW8M:&tbnh=158&tbnw=131&ei=OWPETb7MEI72gAfN7a3LBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3D5%2Bkingdoms%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=1501&vpy=96&dur=620&hovh=246&hovw=205&tx=98&ty=155&page=1&ndsp=32&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://umbc.edu/biosci/images/users/mmartin4/professionalInterests/mmartin4_profInterest_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.umbc.edu/biosci/general/user/mmartin4&usg=__QdZMMccLuJKE9TMqLYY94dNoyAA=&h=241&w=300&sz=13&hl=en&start=0&sig2=TI2pQX27-OrSSdXnSBQ5AQ&zoom=1&tbnid=7_YNB2zrZYrqkM:&tbnh=163&tbnw=203&ei=rGPETZ6fG8OWtweM4rSMBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dspeciation%2Bfish%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=782&vpy=90&dur=304&hovh=192&hovw=240&tx=98&ty=76&page=1&ndsp=30&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://bioap.wikispaces.com/file/view/gradualism.gif/94608242/gradualism.gif&imgrefurl=http://bioap.wikispaces.com/Ch%2B24%2BCollaboration&usg=__M8m7YXwG-dl1stI5YXyrFgPvnHU=&h=600&w=746&sz=66&hl=en&start=0&sig2=8AVvofVQB7Ljd3B-4gcWsg&zoom=1&tbnid=uOJGMg_e2m0qYM:&tbnh=152&tbnw=189&ei=wWPETYucNpSXtweazK2dBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dgradualism%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=283&page=1&ndsp=34&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0&tx=112&ty=115


http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C21/graphics/C21_Divergent_1.GIF&imgrefurl=http://qwikstep.eu/search/what-is-divergent-evolution.html&usg=__7TLK-tPy44qsbCmqQ1VQszKSdb0=&h=300&w=200&sz=22&hl=en&start=0&sig2=JpEhmOPZ1vH9nS97x0MKng&zoom=1&tbnid=XOk1jKi_hNVEDM:&tbnh=161&tbnw=106&ei=2WPETY2IJMuatweLk5mdBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Ddivergence%2Bevolution%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=253&page=1&ndsp=34&ved=1t:429,r:6,s:0&tx=23&ty=81

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://rpmedia.ask.com/ts%3Fu%3D/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cat_Eyes.jpg/190px-Cat_Eyes.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.ask.com/wiki/Heterochromia&usg=__L35xG_GXEkQFgHIlb_oePp44v_w=&h=1220&w=1627&sz=619&hl=en&start=0&sig2=Szp90U5AN7Q30x6Nog7jug&zoom=1&tbnid=T0YXJlsdzELOPM:&tbnh=160&tbnw=215&ei=-mPETYDLJYmitgfs5qSzBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dcat%2Bdifferent%2Beyes%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=373&vpy=88&dur=932&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=148&ty=95&page=1&ndsp=31&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:0

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.crystalinks.com/turtle2heads.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.pinoyexchange.com/forums/showthread.php%3Fp%3D14919556&usg=__uQU7hTGimkMjmCnb3a00_SfGkgE=&h=170&w=227&sz=10&hl=en&start=0&sig2=NOrdKHALFoQqp7RWJYVOXQ&zoom=1&tbnid=76iSK9RcAYepWM:&tbnh=136&tbnw=181&ei=HGTETc_E4bMgQeo75jLBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dharmful%2Bturtle%2Bmutation%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch0%2C515&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=289&page=1&ndsp=32&ved=1t:429,r:26,s:0&tx=83&ty=106&biw=1746&bih=826

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.vaughanpl.info/teenvortex/blog/wp-content/uploads/liger.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.vaughanpl.info/vortex/%3Ftag%3Din-headlines-today%26paged%3D2&usg=__vwQawMBeruJNgXE3Pzra_x1kgT8=&h=388&w=500&sz=45&hl=en&start=0&sig2=CNhkg2eztlV8RmM2Wm4vtQ&zoom=1&tbnid=gSTWT9mDFJGbeM:&tbnh=160&tbnw=206&ei=L2TETdLLJNHAtgfN26mkBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dliger%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=381&vpy=144&dur=539&hovh=160&hovw=206&tx=155&ty=96&page=1&ndsp=34&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ishs.org/news/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/apple.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.ishs.org/news/%3Fp%3D1154&usg=__frKPYQOKfZ6kOBedgrpW0x2aRDA=&h=348&w=345&sz=11&hl=en&start=0&sig2=yFEsWwS6ZZXf-N3PzJ8FaA&zoom=1&tbnid=ZNd25DpnMp8byM:&tbnh=162&tbnw=161&ei=QWTETfPjMcyCtgfMhM2MBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dapple%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=145&vpy=117&dur=322&hovh=162&hovw=161&tx=104&ty=101&page=1&ndsp=35&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0

http://www.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/1/1534327ece5d347f8fe2828c8fdb7677/giraffe.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/evolution/lamarck/section2.rhtml&usg=__8g-lPoDzVfableQN6lZwNhbuUmg=&h=857&w=420&sz=63&hl=en&start=0&sig2=gzp50jyK2WZ6DpI-K26AQw&zoom=1&tbnid=qj_lN3RJl1utGM:&tbnh=156&tbnw=76&ei=VWTETfvyFsGgtwfjmOmlBA&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dlamarckism%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26biw%3D1746%26bih%3D826%26tbm%3Disch&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=296&page=1&ndsp=36&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0&tx=44&ty=96

5.6

Speciation is the formation of a new species where a new biological species arise's.
- Can be created when a population of individuals are reproductively isolated

      

Allopatric speciation is speciation by reproductive isolation. Theres a three-step process:
1) A physical barrier seperates a single interbreeding population into two or more groups that are isolated from eachother

2) Natural selection works on the seperated groups independantly, resulting in inherited differences in the two populations

3) In time accumulated physical and behavioral differences between the populations become so pronounced that the group would no longer be able to be sexually capable should be be reunited


The Theroy of Gradualism is the idea that speciation takes place slowly and at a stedy pace.

The theroy of punctuated equilibrium is the idea that species evolve rappidly by a peroiod of little or no change.

Divergent evolution is when a species rapidly evolves into many different species during the Cambrian peroid.

5.5

Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence in a chromosome. The DNA of an organism most likely will remain the same throughout its life however it can change which causes this mutation.
Mutations can be caused by:

-environmental factors such as chemicals or radiation

-from errors that arise when cells use of make copies of the DNA molecules.

Neural Mutation- a mutation that has no effect on the organism. There is no immediate effect on the individial's fitness or reproductive success. This cat has two different colored eyes. Although both eyes are fully functional the color of each eye has no impact on the organisms fitness or reproductive system.

Harmful Mutation- A mutation that reduces an organism's fitness. This turtle was Mutated by the splitting of the shell. It reduces its fitness and makes it more vulnerable to prey in the environment

Beneficial Mutation- A mutation that enhances an organism's fitness. This would give an organism an advantage in the environment although these mutations are not likely they are beneficial. The Ligar a hybrid crossbreed from a male lion and a tigress is the largest known cat in the world. This beneficial mutation is perfect for the environment to fight off enemies and protect itself

 

Asexual Reproduction is the production of offspring from a single parent; offspring inherit the genes of that parent only. This process does not require fertilization. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well. Budding is an example of asexual reproduction

Sexual Reproduction is the production of offspring by the union of sex cells from two different parents. The offspring inherits a combination of genes from both parents. Each gene may be identical or different.  In humans both parents are involved in sexual reproduction that each have 23 chromosomes, together humans require 46 chromosomes which they obtain from their two parents. The genes passed on from both parent is determined randomly. So therefore we all have our own personal combination of genes that make up who we are. The gene pool are all the genes in a certain population. Their genetic makeup within a population is considered a gene pool.

Artificial selection is the intentional breeding for certain traits, or combination of traits.
Eg. Animal breeders, are often able to change the characteristics of domestic animals by selecting for reproduction those individuals with the most desirable qualities.

 Seedless apples are an artificial selection because many people dislike seeds in their apples. We are now able to produce apples without seeds artificially.

5.4

Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Chevalier de Lamarck believed that living things arose from non-living matter called spontaneous generation and then slowly became more complex. He believed as an organism adapted to its environment as it had a force to change to certain ways that led them to produce new parts to satisfy their needs in the environment.

Lamarkism is the idea that an organism can pass on its characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring. We now know that acquired traits cannot be inherited but Lamarck noticed that an environment impact can have a change on the evolution of the species.

Charles Darwin set sale around the world. He gathered evidence that he would later draw from:

 

- In south American, Darwin observed unusual fossil species that resembled sloths and armadillos living in the same region

-Species living in South America tropics did not resemble those living in the African tropics. 

-The harsh landscape of the Galapagos Islands was home to 13 very similar species of Finches

-Fossil deposits of corals at an elevation of 3000 m in the Andes Mountains

 

Darwin continued to gather evidence and performing experiments. As he believed that the result of differential reproductive success of individuals caused by variations in their inherited characteristics.   Darwin believed that all species produce far more offspring than are able to survive, Since so many are born there must be a competition among them for survival.

Natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin is the belief that the stronger and faster are able to survive in the environment. The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The survial of the fittest
Eg. Cheetahs rely on their speed to help them catch their prey 

5.3

Homologous structures are features with similar structures but different functions. The forelimbs of a bird, wale, horse, and human share similar bone arrangements but are used differently. The ancestral forelimb evolved modifications that better served new functions

Homologous features such as the tailbones are used to classify organisms in Linnaeus classification.

The forelimbs of each of these organisms are adapted to carry out different functions yet they have derived from a similar bone structure.

Embryology  is embryology is the study of the development of embryos, the early forms of adult animals.

Vestigial Features are rudimentary structures that serve no useful function.

Biochemistry

Dogs, Pigs, and horses have at least one Vestigal Feature

Vestigial Features are believed that they once served some function in an ancient ancestor. Modern species of whales and snakes have vestigial hip and leg bones that suggests that at one point in evolution they were able to walk on four limbs. 

5.2

 Paleontology is the branch of science concerned with fossil animals and plants. Eg. The search for and recovery of fossils, the reconstruction and cleaning of fossils, identification and cataloging of fossils. Paleontology has a central position in the study of evolution. Approximately 250 000 fossil species have been discovered. Burrows, footprints, and chemical remains can fossilize and remain dormant for a paleontologist to discover it. Paleontologists can determine:

-Different species that lived on this earth at various times in the past

-The complexity of living organisms from the distant past to the present

-Living species and their most closely matching fossils

Radiometric dating is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or fossils. Radiometric dating using a single isotope is not perfect, but when data from a variety of isotopes are combined, scientists can determine an age estimation. 3.8 billion years was the oldest fossil discovered. 

Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of life on earth. It explores the variation and distribution of live over Earth's surface from the past and present. Biogeography aims to reveal where organisms have once lived and why they are found, or not found, in a certain geographical area.

Some fundamental concepts in biogeography include:

evolution, extinction, and  dispersal

5.1

Taxonomy is the classification of organisms in an ordered system that indicates natural relationships. The system currently used by taxonomists. The classification levels become more specific towards the bottom.

 Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species


Biological classification systems have two main purposes.
1) Identifying organisms
2) Providing a basis for recognizing natural groupings of living things


Carl Linneaus created the present bioligical system of classification. His system was based on an organism's physical and structural features and operating on the idea that the more features in common, the closer the organism had a relationship among other organisms.


Binomial nomenclature is a method of naming of naming organisms by using two names. The genus name and the species name. Scientific names are italicized. Latin being the common language for all scientists are used for naming organisms.




Carl Linnaues, a swedish botanist, based his system on the physical and structural features of an organism. All living organisms are divided into 5 Kingdoms: Plants, Fungi, Animals, Protoctista and Bacteria.

Eg. Birds are in the Animalia Kingdom, are in the Phylum of Chordata, and Class Aves 


At the Order level the birds beginning to diverge and group into separate orders. The Sparrow Order is Passeriformes and the Parrot Order is Psittaciformes.